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Summary and Interpretation of the Latest Published Research on Yoga and Health

Research shows that yoga interventions (particularly those that include not just postures, but also meditation, relaxation, breathing practices, and a yogic diet) can benefit a wide range of emotional and physical illnesses.

Each month, I post a summary of the latest peer-reviewed and published research on yoga and health. This page archives those summaries.

February 2007 Summaries

Effects of Yoga on Quality of Life and Flexibility in Menopausal Women: A Case Series

Source: Explore, 3(1), 42-45.

Authors: Mastrangelo, M.A., Galantino, M.L., & House, L.

This article presents a series of six case studies of women who practiced Iyengar Yoga for menopausal symptoms. The women ranged in age from 44 to 62; all six were taking non-prescription supplements for symptom reduction, and one was on hormone replacement theory.

The women participated in a 70-minute Iyengar Yoga class, taught by a registered Yoga teacher, twice a week for eight weeks. The practice consisted of the following practices and poses (in order):

1. Breathing

2. Forward bending variations

3. Supta baddha konasana (supine bound angle pose)

4. Supta swastikasana (supine fortunate pose)

5. Bharadvajasana (a twisting pose)

6. Pavannamuktasana (release of wind pose)

7. Adho mukha virasana (downward facing hero pose or child’s pose)

8. Adho mukha swastikasana (downward facing fortunate pose)

9. Adho mukha svanasana (downward facing dog)

10. Uttanasana (standing forward bend)

11. Janu sirsasana (seated forward bend with bent leg)

12. Upavistha konasana (seated forward bend with wide legs)

13. Paschimottanasana (full forward bend)

14. Savasana (corpse pose)

15. Pranayama

The women were also encouraged to practice at home, and were given guidelines for several shorter practices. All six women attended all classes, and five women reported practicing at home.

The researchers measured two main variables before and after the 8-week program. The Menopausal Specific Quality of Life (MSQOL) survey measured vasomotor, psychosocial, physical, and sexual functioning, and the sit-and-reach test assessed hamstring flexibility. (Given the forward-bending emphasis of the asana practice, this seems like a reasonable outcome to assess, although its theoretical relationship to quality of life in menopause is not as clear).

Five participants reported a decrease in menopausal symptoms and an increase in quality of life following the 8-week program. Four participants showed improvement on the sit-and-reach test (one participant injured herself in an activity not related to Yoga practice, and was unable to repeat the test).

The authors acknowledge the limitations of a small case study approach. However, these results do provide support for the funding of larger clinical trials with control groups. The researchers should also be commended for providing a clear description of the Yoga practice, so that other Yoga teachers and researchers can build on this work.

Mindfulness Meditation Alleviates Depressive Symptoms in Women with Fibromyalgia: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial.

Source: Arthritis and Rheumatism, 57(1), 77-85.

Authors: Sephton, S.E., Salmon, P., Weissbecker, I., Ulmer, C., Floyd, A.,

Hoover, K., & Studts, J.L.

The authors present a randomized controlled trial that examined the effects of a standard 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) intervention on depression among women with fibromyalgia, a chronic and often debilitating pain and fatigue disorder.

91 women (mean age of 48 years) were randomly assigned to either the MBSR intervention (2 groups of 25 women each) or a wait-list control group (41 women). Participants in the MBSR group attended weekly 2.5 hour sessions, led bya licensed clinical psychologist, that included practice and discussion. The authors describe the MBSR program as follows: “MBSR utilizes stress-reduction skills including sitting meditation, hatha yoga, and a somatically focused technique called the Body Scan. Participants are encouraged to maintain attention on their immediate experience with an attitude of openness, acceptance, curiosity, and compassion.” As is typical with MBSR interventions, participants were encouraged to practice at home daily.

Researchers compared the effects of MBSR versus standard medical care (the wait-list control group) at immediately following the 8-week intervention, and at an additional 2-month follow-up. At both time points, the MBSR group showed significant improvements in depression compared to the control group (the MBSR group improved, but the control group showed no improvement in depression over time).

Interestingly, this study also measured pain and sleep, but rather than reporting these as outcomes, researchers used pain and sleep as covariates in their analysis of how MBSR influenced depression. The authors did not report whether participants also experiences significant improvement in pain and sleep, although one might guess that if the researchers had found such results, they would have reported the effects.

The MBSR program has established research protocols that can be widely replicated by practitioners and researchers, and as evidenced by the number of research summaries reporting MBSR studies, the program has achieved significant success in obtaining funding and publishing data in peer-reviewed journals. It is worth noting this success and considering whether a field as diverse as Yoga, particularly with its emphasis on the individual teacher/student relationship, would ever be able to create a standardized intervention and research protocol.

January 2007

Innovative Interventions for Disordered Eating: Evaluating Dissonance-Based and Yoga Interventions

Source: International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(2), 120-128.

Authors: Mitchell, K.S., Mazzeo, S.E., Rausch, S.M., & Cooke, K.L.

Researchers at Virginia Commonwealth University compared the benefits of cognitive and Yoga interventions for women with body dissatisfaction. 93 college students who responded to an advertisement seeking women with body dissatisfaction were randomly assigned to a control group (30 participants), Yoga group (33 participants), or a cognitive dissonance group (30 participants).

Both the cognitive therapy and Yoga intervention groups met for 45 minutes once a week for six weeks. The cognitive intervention focused on helping women identify negative beliefs related to body image and ideal weight, understanding the source of these beliefs, and strengthening competing (and presumably healthier) beliefs. The Yoga intervention was an Integral Yoga practice, including asana and meditation, taught by a Yoga Alliance registered teacher.

Participants in the cognitive intervention showed significant improvements in disordered eating, drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, alexithymia (difficulty identifying and expressing emotions), and anxiety. Participants in the control group and Yoga group did not show improvements.

In considering why the cognitive therapy was more effective than the Yoga intervention, the authors make two points. First, this study assigned women to a short-term practice. There is an important difference between individuals who self-select into a Yoga practice and individuals who have no natural attraction to Yoga. Women who are drawn to Yoga practice, and build a long-term practice, may experience significant benefits not seen in this six-week intervention.

Second, the Yoga practice only indirectly addressed body image issues, compared to the directness of the cognitive therapy. What this study did not do, but that most Yoga therapists would instinctively do, is combine the two approaches. I expect that many Yoga therapists would feel comfortable helping an individual identify and reflect on negative belief patterns, as part of self-understanding and awareness practice.

A Randomized Trial of Yoga for Adolescents with Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Source: Pain Research and Management, 11(4), 217-23.

Authors: Kuttner, L., Chambers, C.T., Hardial, J., Israel, D.M., Jacobson, K., & Evans, K.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a disorder in which the functioning of the intestines is disrupted, producing either diarrhea or constipation. IBS is frequently accompanied by pain, cramping, and increased sensitivity to normal movements of the intestines. The authors note that IBS is a complex phenomenon with clear psychological influences on physiological processes—making it an excellent candidate for mind-body interventions.

This study compared the effects of a Yoga intervention with a wait-list control for 25 adolescents (ages 11-18; 20 girls and 5 boys) with IBS. Participants were randomly assigned to either group. The Yoga intervention consisted of an initial one-hour instructional session, followed by daily home practice for four weeks. This four-week intervention period was followed by a four-week follow-up period. The wait-list control group received the Yoga intervention after the initial eight weeks.

The authors describe the Yoga teacher as “certified in Hatha and Iyengar.” The daily practice video was 10 minutes long, and began with abdominal breathing in a prone position. Asanas included cat pose, child pose, bridge pose, seated twist, and standing forward bend. Participants were encouraged to attend to abdominal sensations as they practiced, including pain, with mindfulness.

The participants reported a fairly high rate of home practice (on a scale of “0-not at all” to “10-every day”, the mean was 6.81), but self-reported practice is not always reliable, perhaps even more so among an age group that might feel pressure to report “good behavior.” Participants mentioned general busyness and pain/symptoms as two barriers to home practice, and also suggested that a longer practice with more poses would have improved the intervention.

The results of the study are very positive. At the first follow-up point (eight weeks into the study), participants in the first Yoga group reported lower levels of functional disability, less use of emotion-focused avoidance as a coping strategy, and less anxiety than participants in the wait-list control group. After the second round of the Yoga intervention, researchers combined the follow-up data of both groups, and found a significant decrease in gastrointestinal symptoms and emotion-focused avoidance. Although there were not significant results for other measures (depression and pain), there were statistically non-significant improvements in both, suggesting that the yoga intervention did not, at least, negatively influence these outcomes.

A Pilot Study on Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction for Smokers.

Source: BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 7(1). Published online ahead of print.

Authors: Davis, J.M., Fleming, M.F., Bonus, K.A., & Baker, T.B.

The complete article is available for free at:

www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/7/2

This pilot study investigated the feasibility of using a Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) intervention for smoking cessation. Smoking cessation is a notoriously difficult goal, and participant retention is a major challenge for smoking cessation research. The goals of a feasibility study include determining not just whether an intervention “works,” but also how difficult it is to recruit a specific population to participate in a specific intervention, and retain participants throughout the intervention.

Participants were recruited for a “Quit Smoking” study, but not initially told the nature of the intervention. 22 respondents attended a one-hour orientation that described the intervention, and 18 volunteered to participate. It should be noted that this is an interesting tactic for recruitment—not mentioning meditation until potential participants have already invested some time. The participants had smoked for an average of 26 years, and none of the participants were using pharmacological smoking cessation aids during the intervention.

The MBSR intervention followed the standard MBSR protocol (eight weekly group sessions with instructions of body and breath awareness, gentle movement including yoga and walking meditation, and discussion/reading related to mindfulness, as well as home practice).

The authors write: “In the spirit of non-goal-directedness central to mindfulness training, subjects were encouraged not to focus on smoking cessation as a ‘goal’ for the intervention, but instead, to direct their intention toward developing a mindful orientation toward their lives. Subjects were encouraged to apply moment-to-moment non-judgmental awareness to strong emotions or thoughts, which in this case often involved craving, negative affect, or withdrawal symptoms. Subjects were encouraged to practice mindfulness throughout their day, including during meals, social interactions, and moments associated with situational drug use threats.”

The intervention set the seventh session as the date to quit smoking. This is an interesting choice, as many other cessation interventions encourage quitting as soon as possible. However, it is quite consistent with a mindfulness-based approach that emphasizes awareness and conscious action over resistance and forced change.

Participants varied in compliance; five participants were considered “non-compliant” (did not practice at home) and these all dropped out of the intervention by the fourth week. The results of the study, for those who stayed in the study, are very encouraging. Ten of the thirteen compliant participants demonstrated smoking abstinence at a six-week post-intervention follow-up (determined by biological tests). Smoking cessation was predicted by participants’ mindfulness practice, and the improvements in stress associated with practice.

The authors note that participants who has an initial interest in meditation were more likely to succeed at smoking cessation; this suggests that the intervention may have had even higher success rates has the researchers recruited specifically for a meditation intervention, rather than a “Quit Smoking” study.

September 2006 Summaries

Feasibility and acceptability of restorative yoga for treatment of hot flushes: A pilot trial.
Source: Maturitas. Published online Sep 14 2006 ahead of print.
Authors:Cohen, B.E., Kanaya, A.M., Macer, J.L., Shen, H., Chang, A.A., & Grady, D.

Researchers at the San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center and the University of California, San Francisco, conducted a pilot study of restorative yoga for the treatment of hot flushes in postmenopausal women. 14 postmenopausal women (mean age 58) experiencing moderate to severe hot flushes participated in an 8-week yoga intervention designed and taught by two certified yoga instructors with “extensive experience
working with peri- and postmenopausal women.”
Participants first attended a 3-hour workshop that introduced eight postures: balasana (child’s pose), adho mukha svanasana (downward facing dog), baddha konasana (seated bound angle pose), upavisthakonasana (seatedwide angle pose), viparita karani (supported legs up the wall), setu bandha sarvangasana (supported bridge pose), sputa baddha konasana (supported lying down bound angle pose) and savasana (corpse pose)). The women then attended eight weekly 90-min yoga classes and were asked to practice at home for 1 hour at least three times per week.

It is interesting to note that this study was reported as a feasibility and acceptability study, meaning that one of the primary goals of the study was to establish that a yoga intervention could successfully recruit and retain postmenopausal women. The researchers report 93% retention of participants, 92% of whom attended at least 7 of the 8 sessions. Participants practiced at home for an average of 170 minutes per week. At a 3-month follow-up, 75% of participants reported continuing to practice the yoga poses they had learned in the intervention; 44% went on to learn new poses. As part of the acceptability study, researchers also asked participants what was “the most bothersome part of the study.” The most common response was “taking time to practice yoga at home” (38.5%). Participants suggested that home practice guides, such as a video or handouts, would improve the intervention.

The study also reports that the participants experienced on average a 31% reduction in hot flush frequency and a 34% reduction in hot flush severity, from baseline to week 8. The authors discuss one possible mechanism for how restorative yoga can help menopausal symptoms: reduction in sympathetic activation, which can contribute to hot flushes. Although this study did not measure changes in sympathetic activation, the authors cite other studies that have demonstrated changes following yoga practice.

August 2006 Summaries

The effect of long term combined yoga practice on the basal metabolic rate of healthy adults.
Source: BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine,6, 28.
Authors: Chaya, M.S., Kurpad, A.V., Nagendra, H.R., & Nagarathna, R.

Free full text article available at:
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16945127

Researchers at a residential yoga education and research center near Bangalore City in south India investigated the effects of yoga (asana, pranayama, and meditation) on basal metabolic rate (BMR). Researchers compared two groups of residents at the center: 55 (24 women) who had been practicing yoga daily for the past six months or more, and 49 (15 women) who were working at the center and living a similar lifestyle, but not practicing yoga. The average BMR of the yoga practitioners was significantly lower than that of the non-yoga group, and this was not due to differences in body weight.There were also significant differences in respiratory variables (lower in the yoga group) but not in heart rate.

What are the implications having lower BMR? Although low BMR is sometimes discussed as a health risk (i.e., for obesity), elevated BMR is also associated with greater stress. It is unclear from the health literature whether a reduced BMR is a desirable health outcome, and future research should attempt to link BMR with any health outcomes associated with yoga practice. The authors recognize these difficulties in interpreting their findings, and suggest the lower BMR seen among yoga practioners may be a healthy adaptation associated with reduced overall arousal.

July 2006 Summaries

Oxygen Consumption and Respiration During and After two Yoga Relaxation Techniques.
Source: Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. Pub online (July 13 2006) ahead of print.
Authors: Sarang, PS, and Telles, S.

This study examined the consumption of oxygen, breath rate, and breath volume in 50 male participants during two yogic practices: (1) cyclic meditation (CM), which combined yoga postures and restful awareness, and (2) relaxation in shavasana (corpse pose). The participants were assigned to one of the two conditions on alternating days, so that data was collected for both conditions for all 50 participants.

In the cyclic meditation condition, participants alternated the practice of yoga poses with supine rest. In this condition, participants were guided by audiotape and instructed to keep their eyes closed. The instructions emphasized carrying out the practice slowly, with awareness, and relaxation. The total practiced lasted 22 minutes and 30 seconds, as follows:

Phase 1 (5 min): Participants repeated a verse from the yoga text the Mandukya
Upanishad (1 min), practiced isometric contraction of various muscles of the body, and then rested in a supine position (1 min 30 s). Phase 1 ended by having participants stand at ease in mountain pose (tadasana) and balancing the weight on both feet called (2 min 30 s).
Phase 2 (5 min): Participants practiced ardhakatichakrasana, a pose of bending to the right (1 min 20 s); rested for in tadasana (1 min 10 s), practiced ardhakatichakrasana to the left (1 min 20 s), and rested again a in tadasana (1 min 10 s).
Phase 3 (5 min): Participants practiced forward bending in padahastasana (1 min 20 s), followed by a rest in tadasana (1 min 10 s); backward bending in ardhacakrasana (1 min 20 s), followed by a rest in tadasana (1 min 10 s).
Phase 4 (7 min 30 s): Participants came into a supine posture for rest, and followed instructions to relax different parts of the body in sequence.

In the shavasana condition, participants lay supine in corpse posture (shavasana), eyes closed, for 22 minutes and 30 seconds.

In the cyclic meditation condition, oxygen consumption, breath rate, and breath volume increased during the yoga postures and returned to baseline levels during the rest periods. Oxygen consumption decreased by 19.3 percent below baseline values after the 22 minute and 30 second practice. The authors compare these results to the established finding that oxygen consumption increases following traditional aerobic exercise. The reduced oxygen consumption following the cyclic yoga suggests that there is no such rebound effect for moderately active yoga when the poses are practiced with rest periods. During the shavasana condition, oxygen consumption, breath rate, and breath volume decreased; however; the decrease in oxygen consumption after shavasana was only 4.8 percent. The results suggest that a combination of yoga postures with supine rest reduces oxygen consumption more than relaxation alone does. The reductions in oxygen consumption was maintained for 30 minutes after the practice of cyclic meditation and shavasana. The authors also point out that there are no well-understood consequences for long-term reduced oxygen consumption, there are possible implications for anxiety levels (which are associated with increased oxygen consumption).

Intraocular Pressure Changes and Ocular Biometry during Sirsasana (Headstand Posture) in Yoga Practitioners.
Source: Ophthalmology, 113(8):1327-32. August 2006.
Authors: Baskaran M, Raman K, Ramani KK, Roy J, Vijaya L, Badrinath SS.

The increased intraocular pressure of glaucoma reduces blood supply to the optic nerve of the eye, harming vision. This study examined the effects of sirsasana (headstand) on intraocular pressure, and risk factors for glaucoma, in 75 experienced yoga practitioners (age range of 19–86, mean age of 49 years). Pressure increased immediately upon entering headstand, and increased by 100% after 5 minutes in headstand. Pressure returned to a slightly elevated level (compared to baseline) after headstand. The study also examined the prevalence of ocular hypertension in the participants, and did not find a higher prevalence of ocular hypertensives in this group than would be expected. It’s difficult to know how to interpret the findings of this study; the increased intraocular pressure observed in headstand could, in theory, be harmful; however, there were no correlations in this sample of experienced yoga practitioners between years of headstand experience, or time spent in headstand daily, and signs of risk factors for glaucoma. The authors recommend continued research, including long-term follow-up of headstand practitioners, but no need for extreme caution among yoga practitioners.

Effects of a yoga lifestyle intervention on performance-related characteristics of musicians: A preliminary study.
Source: Medical Science Monitor. 2006 Jul 12;12(8):CR325
Authors: Khalsa SB, and Cope S.

This study examined the effects of participating in an 8-week yoga and meditation program among 8 musicians (ages 21-30; 4 females) enrolled in a prestigious (and presumably stressful and challenging) 2-month summer fellowship program at Tanglewood. 8 musicians in residence at Tanglewood served as a control group.

The yoga and meditation program was held at the Kripalu Center for Yoga and Health (near Tanglewood), and consisted of the following:
a) Morning and afternoon Kripalu Yoga sessions held 7 days per week in either gentle, moderate and vigorous yoga intensity levels. Students were allowed to determine their own yoga class attendance schedule. Participants attended, on average, 5 classes a week early in the program, and 3 classes a week as the program progressed.
b) Once-a-week evening sessions including a 90-minute intensive yoga session followed by a 2-hour discussion/problem-solving/group interaction session addressing practical issues in the practice of yoga and meditation and psychological issues relevant to musical performance and their progression in the musical profession (facilitated a senior Yoga and meditation instructor with training in counseling and psychotherapy). Attendance was typically 80-90%.
c) Optional 30-minute early morning meditation sessions held 5 days per week. About half of participants attended these sessions.
e) At the end of the 8-week program, the Kripalu participant fellows gathered for an all day retreat that included an overnight stay in the Kripalu dormitories, a yoga class, a group meal and other social activities.

The researchers were interested in a variety of outcomes related to the challenges of performing: performance-related musculoskeletal disorders, performance anxiety, experience of flow states, and general mood. Participants in the yoga group and control completed self-report measures before and after the 8-week intervention. The only significant difference between the yoga group and the control group was lower anxiety during solo performances in the yoga group. However, the control group showed increases in negative mood states over the 8-week music fellowship, and the yoga group did not. Although this difference between groups was not significant, the small sample size did not allow researcher to detect potentially “real” but modest differences. The researchers point out this study was far more than the typical yoga asana or meditation intervention; the protocol is a model of a yoga lifestyle intervention.

June 2006 Summaries

1. Yoga for Rehabilitation in Chronic Pancreatitis
2. Group prevention of eating disorders with fifth-grade females: impact on body dissatisfaction, drive for
thinness, and media influence.
3. A pilot study of a yoga meditation protocol for patients with medically refractory epilepsy.
4. Comments to an Article on Health Realization/Innate Health

Yoga for Rehabilitation in Chronic Pancreatitis
Source: Gut, 55(7):1051.
Authors: Sareen, S, & Kumari, V.

This study investigated the benefits of a 12-week Iyengar yoga program for 30 individuals with chronic pancreatitis, a condition that can cause severe pain, particularly following meals. Prior to the yoga program, all participants were experiencing pain, anxiety, and weight loss associated with pancreatitis. They were all being treated at a clinic that offered a comprehensive medical approach to treating pancreatitis.

An experienced yoga teacher led three one-hour classes each week. 24 of the original 30 patients participated through the full 12-week program.

Findings: The researchers compared self-reported pain, use of pain medication, and weight at the beginning of the program and the end of the 12-week intervention, Participants reported a 62% reduction in pain and a 36% reduction in use of pain medication. Participants also gained an average of 2.2 kg (5% of the average starting weight).

Interpretation: This study offers support for the idea that yoga can improve chronic pain. A strength of this study is that is measured not just self-reported pain, but also an important clinical outcome for chronic pancreatitis (weight gain). An important limitation of this study is its lack of a control group that would allow comparison between the yoga intervention and standard medical care or another intervention.

Group prevention of eating disorders with fifth-grade females: impact on body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and media influence.
Source: Eating Disorders, 14(2):143-55.
Authors: Scime, M., Cook-Cottone, C., Kane, L., & Watson, T.

This study reports the results of a primary was program aimed at preventing eating disorders in young girls. The program designed for fifth-grade girls (mean age of 10 years old). Because this was a primary prevention program, the participants did not necessarily display any signs or symptoms of eating disorders, and varied greatly in weight/body mass index.

The 10-week group program took an integrated mind-body, positive psychology approach. Sessions were facilitated by a licensed psychologist, a school counselor, and two graduate students. Each session was structured as follows:
1. 30 minutes of yoga
2. 10 minutes of journal writing in response to a song or poem
3. 30 minutes of a group project/discussion
4. 15 minutes of guided relaxation and visualization.

This study examines data from three different groups (45 participants in all). A comparison of pre- and post-intervention found that the participants reported a reduced body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness following the 10-week program. The authors identified several aspects of the program that may have increased its effectiveness: the small size of each group, and the choice to focus on pre-adolescent girls, who may be more open to changing beliefs about weight, food, and body image.

The main weakness of this study is its lack of a control group; however, it provides a strong model for integrating yoga techniques into a psychological intervention.

A pilot study of a yoga meditation protocol for patients with medically refractory epilepsy.
Source: Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 12(4):367-71.
Authors: Rajesh, B., Jayachandran, D., Mohandas, G., & Radhakrishnan, K.

Epilepsy effects about 1% of the population, and up to 50% of individuals with epilepsy continue to have seizures even while being treated with anti-seizure medications. This article reports the results of a prospective, nonrandomized trial of a yoga meditation protocol for drug-resistant epilepsy. 20 patients (14 males and 6 females, age range 15 to 47 years, median 27 years) at the R. Madhavan Nayar Center for Comprehensive Epilepsy Care were monitored for 12 weeks, then received 12 weeks of yoga meditation instruction/practice. The outcome of interest, measured at 12 weeks (before intervention), 24 weeks (after intervention) and 12 months (follow-up), was the patients’ frequency of complex partial seizures. All participants had experienced at least complex partial seizures in the initial 12 weeks. The 12-week yoga meditation program included a weekly supervised session and 20 minutes of home practice each morning and evening. After the intervention, 19 of the 20 participants experienced a reduction in seizure frequency, and 6 experienced at least a 50% reduction in seizure frequency. After the intitial intervention, participants were invited to continue practicing the yoga meditation; of the 16 participants who did, 14 experienced at least a 50% reduction in seizure frequency by a six month follow-up, and 6 experienced no seizure in the most recent 3 months.

Comments to an Article on Health Realization/Innate Health
Authors: Telles, S. & Visweswaraiah, N.K.
Source: Medical Science Monitor, 12(6):LE13-13.

A surprising letter was published in Medical Science Monitor, an International Medical Journal for Experimental and Clinical Research. The letter, written by Shirley Telles and Naveen K. Visweswaraiah, from the Swami Vivekananda Yoga Research Foundation in Bangalore, summarizes the tenets of classical Yoga Philosophy, citing Pantanjali’s Yoga Sutras and the Taittreya Upanisad. The contents of letter would not be surprising to Yoga practitioners; what is
surprising is that a mainstream medical journal considered this letter worthy and important for its audience of medical professionals and scientists. The letter was in response to an article that asked the question: “Can a quiet mind and a positive feeling state be accessible over the lifespan without stress-relief techniques?” Telles and Visweswaraiah describe Yoga philosophy as a way of answering “Yes,” arguing that the result of Yoga practice is “a completely 'free' mind, free from all ('good' and 'bad') patterns of responding. This steady mental state, which is equally undisturbed by 'good' and by 'bad' events, is considered as a state of 'perfect bliss' (ananda), which is the inherent state of every person.”

May 2006 Summaries

1. The Phenomenology of Meditation for Female Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence
2. Some Light on the Popularity of Yoga and Famous Yoga Masters
3. On the Stability and Modifiability of the Sense of Coherence in Active Seniors
4. Mindfulness Meditation for Oncology Patients: A Discussion and Critical Review

The Phenomenology of Meditation for Female Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence.
Author: Kane, K.E.
Source: Violence Against Women, 12(5), 501-518.

This phenomenological study (using semistructured interviews) explored the use of meditation as a strategy for healing the physical, emotional, cognitive, and spiritual impact of intimate partner violence.

The six women in this study (all Caucasian, ranging in age from 31 to 49) participated in a 90-minute group session that taught a form of concentrative meditation focusing on the breath. The women were instructed “to gently return awareness to the breath as they noticed their attention being drawn to external and internal distractions.” This instructional session was followed by six weeks of a once-a-week group meditation, which included two meditation periods separated by a discussion period. The author described this weekly session as: “designed to provide the opportunity for [the women] to develop a sense of connection with others, to serve as a check-in to address any specific questions related to the techniques of meditation, and to provide encouragement for the women to maintain a regular practice.” The women were also encouraged to practice the meditation on their own for 20 minutes a day.

The author observed 9 main themes in the interviews with participants:
1) The women were motivated by a desire for change and viewed meditation as a vehicle for change.
2) The women experienced challenges learning to meditate, and many experienced frustration.
3) The women experienced changes in practice over time that can best be described as a lessening of the struggle to control the process of meditation.
4) Many of the women had sensory experiences related to heaviness or weightlessness, and one experienced an increased awareness of the pain related to previous injuries/violence.
5) The majority of women preferred meditating at home over the group sessions, and many experienced self-consciousness during the group practice.
6) The women experienced greater well-being (peace, relaxation, focus) following meditation.
7) The women noticed sustained changes in mindfulness and staying “centered” in everyday life.
8) The women experienced a greater connection with the self or spiritual connection.
9) The women learned to deal with abuse-related memories and thoughts during meditation, but it presented a significant challenge to their continued participation.

It is useful to note that the women were recruited for this study from a support agency, and meditation sessions were held at the agency. This kind of integration with an established community and support group is an important aspect of research and service.

Some Light on the Popularity of Yoga and Famous Yoga Masters
Author: Smith, J.C.
Source: PsycCRITIQUES, Vol 51 (2). Published online. http://www.apa.org/psyccritiques/

Although not a research article, it is interesting to note that PsycCRITIQUES, published by the American Psychological Association, reviewed BKS Iyengar’s latest book, Light on Life: The Yoga Journey to Wholeness, Inner Peace, and Ultimate Freedom. The following quote sheds light on how the largest professional association for mental healthcare providers in the U.S. may view yoga: “Many people find yoga useful as a set of exercises. However, psychological and medical advice offered by teachers outside of the health professions can be misleading.” The review also makes a point that most yoga therapists would agree with: “Different approaches to relaxation, meditation, and mindfulness may well have different effects. It is misguided to assume that one family of approaches is consistently superior.”

On the Stability and Modifiability of the Sense of Coherence in Active Seniors
Authors: Wiesmann, U., Rolker, S., Ilg, H., Hirtz, P., & Hannich, H.J.
Source: Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie, 39(2), 90-99.

[Note: This article is published in German and this summary is based primarily on the English abstract provided by PubMed.]
Sense of coherence (SOC), as defined by Antonovsky, is a global psychological orientation to life. High SOC is associated with three beliefs: (1) your experiences and environment are structured, predictable, and explainable; (2) you have access to the resources needed to meet life’s challenges; and (3) life’s challenges are worthy of investment and engagement. This study examined whether several types of interventions influenced SOC among a senior population. 42 active seniors (mean age of 66.3 years, 65.5% female), participated in a 14-week program focusing on physical activity and/or self-reflection (endurance training, strength training, yoga, or meditation). The participants’ SOC was significantly strengthened over time, for all types of intervention. Participants also showed an improvement in well-being, subjective health, and psychosocial resources. Although this study does not report on no-intervention comparison group/control group, it is worth noting that SOC is generally believed to be stable, and improvements in SOC represent general improvements in the ability to cope with life stressors.

Mindfulness Meditation for Oncology Patients: A Discussion and Critical Review
Authors: Ott, M.J., Norris, R.L., & Bauer-Wu, S.M.
Source: Integrative Cancer Therapies, 5(2), 98-108.

This article reviews the existing and emerging research on mindfulness meditation as an intervention for cancer patients. The authors describe the rationale for teaching mindfulness meditation to cancer patients as follows: “Mindfulness meditation can be helpful to cancer patients across the continuum of care from diagnosis through procedures, treatments, cure, and survival, as well as at the end of life. It is a useful skill that can be practiced by patients to reduce and cope with stress, promote relaxation, and alleviate physical discomfort and emotional distress.” Mindfulness practices commonly taught include sitting meditation, awareness of sensations, the body scan (a breath visualization practice), and mindful movement (typically gentle yoga or walking meditation).

The authors’ search for studies published between 1987 and 2004 identified 9 research articles and 5 conference abstracts. [Note: A search on PubMed in May 2006 identified only one additional study of mindfulness for cancer patients; it demonstrated benefits for sleep quality, energy levels, and mood.]

The majority of studies focused on group mindfulness classes for breast and prostate cancer patients. The studies consistently reported positive effects on psychological well-being, as well as reductions in physical symptoms. The authors also found limited/mixed evidence for the benefits of mindfulness interventions on nutritional outcomes – namely, adopting a lower-fat and lower-calorie, plant-based diet, and reducing caffeine intake. Evidence for immunological and neuroendocrine effects were much more limited, mostly due to a lack of published research. The few published studies provide promising evidence that mindfulness may have an anti-inflammatory effect, and may influence the physiological stress response, but there is not enough evidence to make strong claims.

April 2006 Summaries

Effect of Sahaj Yoga on depressive disorders.
Authors: Sharma, V.K., Das, S., Mondal, S., Goswampi, U., & Gandhi, A.
Source: Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 49(4): 462-8.

This study compared the effects of anti-depressant medication with a combined approach of anti-depressant medication and Sahaj Yoga (for more information about this meditation approach, visit http://www.sahajayoga.org). 30 adults (19 men) were randomly assigned to either medication alone or medication and 8 weeks of Sahaj Yoga training. At the end of the 8 weeks, both groups showed improvements in depression symptoms, but participants in the combined medication and yoga group showed greater improvement. Also, a higher percentage of participants in the combined group were in full remission from depression at the end of the 8 weeks.

An exploratory mixed methods study of the acceptability and effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for patients with active depression and anxiety in primary care.

Authors: Finucaine, A., & Mercer, S.W.
Source: BMC Psychiatry, 6(1):14. E-published ahead of print.

The full article is available for free to the public:
http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-244x-6-14.pdf

This study evaluated how an 8-week Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) course could be in a primary-care setting for individuals with recurrent depression and anxiety. The authors report on the experience of 13 patients (taken from qualitative interviews with the patients). The researcher also measured participants’ depression and anxiety (through self-report questionnaires) before and after the MBCT course, and found statistically significant reductions in depression and anxiety following the course. Of particular note are two findings from the interviews: most participants thought the 8-week course was too short, and more than half continued to practice mindfulness techniques learned in the course. The interviews also highlight the value of group support for learning the techniques, and also the frustration and challenge associated with making time for the practice and learning the practices. This article differs from most published research on mindfulness – and will be especially interesting to teachers - for the extensive quotes from interviews with participants.

The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue.

Authors: Walsh, R., & Shapiro, S.L.
Source: The American Psychologist, 61(3):227-39.

Early in this paper, the authors share a quote from the 1966 book The History of Psychiatry, which described “the obvious similarities between schizophrenic regressions and the practices of Yoga and Zen”. Much has changed since then, with substantial interest among the psychology community in meditation techniques. The authors call the current period of enthusiasm about meditation one of “assimilative integration.” Some yoga traditionalists may bristle at that term, and the authors certainly do not see this stage as maximally useful or honoring towards either Western psychology or meditation tradition. The authors argue for maintaining the value and integrity of both Eastern and Western traditions by moving towards “mutual enrichment”, “systematic integration”, and finally the “integral stage” that results in “comprehensive, coherent, and holistic conceptual framework, adequate to both meditative and psychological traditions.” The authors go on to define several techniques and concepts of meditation, and review Western research on meditation. In discussing how meditation “works”, or produces psychological benefits, the authors point out that both meditation and psychotherapy share the process of “refining awareness,” and this may precede the process of “disidentification” that is important in the tradition of meditation. Anyone currently conducting research on meditation or using meditation in psychotherapy should obtain this article.

Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies.
Authors: Cahn, B.R., & Polich, J.
Source: Psychological Bulletin, 132(2):180-211

This review of research on the neuroscience of meditation is notable first for its publication in arguably the most prestigious scholarly psychology journal. Although this review is too comprehensive to summarize, a few points of the review are worth noting:
1) The authors characterize different forms of meditation by how they influence attention, with a distinction between mindfulness and concentration.
2) The authors identify two kinds of effects from meditation: state (what happens when someone is meditating) and trait (long-term changes based on the practice of meditation but not limited to the state of meditation).
3) A review of EEG studies demonstrates that meditation does influence brain activity (alpha and theta waves), but because of the variety of meditation techniques used and research methods, the authors did not draw any conclusions about specific brain activity changes.
4) A review of brain imaging studies suggests that different techniques have different effects on brain activation, and these effects correspond to what you might predict (for example, visualization meditations activating the visual areas of the brain, and a meditation on joy activating the area of the brain associated with processing positive emotion).

March 2006 Summaries

Yoga and pranayama help overweight teens lose weight.

Source: American Heart Association's 46th Annual Conference on Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology and Prevention, Phoenix, March 2-5, 2006. CDC: "Overweight and Obesity." News release, American Heart Association.

Researchers from Hampton University in Virginia presented findings on the benefits of yoga and pranayama for teenagers at the March 2006 American Heart Association's annual conference on Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology and Prevention. Their study compared weight loss/gain in two groups of overweight high school students: 30 students who were taught 40 minutes of yoga and pranayama four times a week for 12 weeks, and 30 students who received no instruction. Neither group was instructed to diet or change food intake. Studentts in the yoga group showed a 5.7 percent decrease in average body mass index (BMI) and weight loss of six pounds, whereas students in the control showed a non-significant increase in average BMI.

Stress management: a randomized study of cognitive behavioural therapy and yoga.

Authors: Granath, J., Ingvarsson, S., von Thiele, U., & Lundberg, U.
Source: Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 35(1):3-10. 2006.

This study compared the psychological and physiological benefits of a Kundalini yoga program and a stress management program based on cognitive behavioral therapy principles. 33 employees (26 women) at a large Swedish company were randomly assigned to one of the two programs. Each program included 10 sessions over 4 months. Participants in both groups showed significant improvements in both psychological (self-rated stress and stress behavior, anger, exhaustion, quality of life) and physiological (blood pressure, heart rate, urinary catecholamines, salivary cortisol) outcomes. There was no significant difference between groups. The authors conclude that both “cognitive behaviour therapy and yoga are promising stress management techniques.”

The effectiveness of body-oriented methods of therapy in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): results of a controlled pilot study

[This article is published in German, and the following summary is based only on the English translation of the article’s abstract.]

Authors: Haffner J, Roos J, Goldstein N, Parzer P, Resch F.
Source: Zeitschrift fur Kinder und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 34(1):37-47. January 2006.

This randomized controlled pilot study compared the effectiveness of yoga and conventional motor exercises for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Nineteen children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD were randomly assigned to either yoga or conventional exercise. Children in the yoga group showed greater improvements in attention and reduced symptoms of ADHD, as reported by their parents. However, children in both groups improved over time, and at the end of the study, the group means for the ADHD scales did not differ significantly from those for a representative control group. The training was particularly effective for children who were also undergoing pharmacotherapy. The authors conclude that yoga can be an effective complementary or concomitant treatment for ADHD.

Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness.

Authors: Baer, R.A., Smith, G.T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L.
Source: Assessment,13(1):27-45. March 2006.

This paper is particularly important for researchers who use mindfulness as a predictor or outcome, and need a reliable and valid questionnaire to measure mindfulness. It may also be useful for clinicians who are interested in how mindfulness changes over time.
The authors review the available mindfulness questionnaires report the results of a factor analysis that revealed five facets of mindfulness. Analyses showed that these facets may be differentially related to other psychological factors; the “nonjudging of experience” facet was most strongly associated with psychological well-being.
Below are the five factors identified, with an example of an item that represents each factor.
Factor 1: Nonreactivity to Inner Experience
Example: I perceive my feelings and emotions without having to react to them.
Factor 2: Observing/noticing/attending to sensations/perceptions/thoughts/feelings
Example: I remain present with sensations and feelings even when they are unpleasant or painful.
Factor 3: Acting with awareness/automatic pilot/concentration/nondistraction
Example: I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of something else. (reverse-scored)
Factor 4: Describing/labeling with words
Example: I can easily put my beliefs, opinions, and expectations into words.
Factor 5: Nonjudging of experience
Example: I tell myself I shouldn’t be thinking the way I’m thinking.

Researchers or clinicians interested in obtaining the full set of items and scoring instructions should contact the author or purchase the article from the publisher online. http://asm.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/13/1/27

The beneficial effect of yoga in diabetes.
Authors: Malhotra, V., Singh, S., Tandon, O.P., & Sharma, S.B.
Nepal Medical College Journal, 7(2):145-7. December 2005.

Department of Physiology, University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Tegh Bahadur Hospital, Delhi.

This study investigated the benefits of yoga asana for twenty participants (between the ages of 30 and 60) with mild to moderate non-insulin dependent diabetes. in All participants were on diet and medication for the control of diabetes. The study also compared the yoga group to a control group of 36 adults, also following a diet and medication plan to control diabetes, that practiced standard exercise guidelines for diabetes (such as walking).

Participants in the yoga group practiced yoga for 30-40 minutes every morning for 40 days. The asana practice included: surya namaskar, bhastrika pranayama, trikonasana, tadasana, sukhasana, padmasana, pashimottanasana, ardhmatsyendrasana, pawanmuktasana, bhujangasana, vajrasana, dhanurasana, and savasana.

Yoga participants showed the following changes after the 40-day program: reduced waist to hip ratio (high wait to hip ration is considered a risk factor for cardiovascular and metabolic disease) and a decrease in fasting blood glucose. There was also a marginally significant trend for reductions in postprandial (after-meal) blood glucose levels. Among obese participants (but not participants of lower weight), serum levels of insulin decreased. All of these changes are considered positive for the management of diabetes. The control group showed no positive changes in any of these measurements.

The authors conclude that “yoga asanas may be used as an adjunct with diet and drugs in the management of Type 2 diabetes.”

February 2006 Summaries

Physiological Responses to Iyengar Yoga Performed by Trained Practitioners.

Author: Blank, S.E.
Source: Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, 9, 7-23.
Access the full article for free at: http://www.unm.edu/~rrobergs/JEPonline/Feb06/February06.htm

This study measured the physiological responses of 15 female intermediate/advanced level Iyengar yoga practitioners (mean age 43.5 ± 6.9 yr), during an active Iyengar asana practice. In particular, the report focuses on cardiovascular and respiratory responses. During the 90 minute practice, practitioners expended an average of 149.4 ± 50.7 Kcal, which is equivalent to very mild exercise (walking might expend 300 Kcal, in comparison), and the practice did not meet the standards for sustained cardiovascular exercise. Backbends had the greatest cardiovascular response, compared to standing poses, inversions, and seated or supine poses. Interestingly, misalignment in poses influenced blood pressure responses in the pose. For example, misalignment in the warrior poses was associated with greater systolic blood pressure in the poses.

Anyone interested in this data should access the full article online, as it includes a detailed list of asanas (including photos) and full statistics for every pose.

Impact Of Pranayama And Yoga On Lipid Profile In Normal Healthy Volunteers.

Authors: Prasad, K.VV., Sunita, M., Raju, P.S., Reddy, M.V., Sahay, B.K., & Murthy, K.J.Y.
Source: Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, 9, 1-6.
Access the full article for free at: http://www.unm.edu/~rrobergs/JEPonline/Feb06/February06.htm

Participants: 41 men and 23 women (ages 18-30 years) participating in a three months yoga certificate course at the Vemana Yoga Research Institute in Hyderabad, India. All volunteers were healthy, with no previous yoga experience.

Yoga Instruction: For 30 days, the following pranayama sequence was practiced: Rechaka Puraka, Rechaka Puraka with Kumbhaka, Suryabedha Chandrabedha, Suryabedha Chandrabedha with Kumbhaka, and Kapalabhati, for 10 min each. Savasana was practiced for another 10 min at the end of the pranayama session. After 30 days, the pranayama practice was reduced to 20 min, and the following asanas were practiced for 40 min: Uttanasana, Mandukasana, Ustrasana, Yogamudra, Matsyendrasana, Paschimottanasana, Bhujangasana, Sarvangasana, Halasana, Uddiyana, Ardhamatsyendrasna, Dhanurasana, Shalabhasana, Sarpasana and Chakrasana. This combined pranayama and asana practice was continued for 60 days.

Results: Women and men showed different metabolic responses to the pranayama and asana practices. However, in general, the responses of both women and men were positive (improvements/reductions in risk factors for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases). Men showed reduced levels of serum triglycerides and VLDL-cholesterol at the end of the first 30 days (pranayama practice only), and increased levels of HDL-cholesterol (the "good" cholesterol) and free fatty acids at the end of both the first 30 days (pranayama practice only) and at the end of the 3-month session. There was no change in LDL-cholesterol. Women showed reduced levels of serum free fatty acids at the end of both the first 30 days (pranayama only) and the 3-month session, and also showed reduced levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol and VLDL- cholesterol by the end of the 3-month session. There were no changes in HDL-cholesterol.

Randomized, Controlled, Six-month Trial of Yoga in Healthy Seniors: Effects on Cognition and Quality of Life.

Authors: Moolasarn, S., Sripa, S., Kuessirikiet, V., Sutawee, K., Huasary, J., Chaisila, C., Chechom, N., & Sankan, S.
Source: Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 12, 40-7.

This randomized, controlled trial compared the benefits of six months of yoga, walking, and a wait-list control for 118 generally healthy seniors (65-85 years). The yoga and walking conditions included both group classes and a recommendation of home practice. Neither yoga nor walking improved cognitive function (including a an EEG measure of alertness). Participants in the yoga condition showed improvements in physical outcomes such as balance and flexibility, and quality of life outcomes such as energy and sense of well-being.

Evaluating a Yogic Breathing and Meditation Intervention for Individuals Living with HIV/AIDS.

Authors: Brazier, A., Mulkins, A., & Verhoef, M.
Source: American Journal of Health Promotion, 20, 192-5.

This randomized controlled trial examined the benefits of a residential program, based on the Art of Living Course, for individuals living with HIV/AIDS. The program teaches breathing, movement, and meditation techniques. 47 out of 62 volunteers from community HIV/AIDS organizations completed study. Participants who completed the Art of Living program showed improvements in mental and physical well-being immediately following the program, but these improvements were not maintained at later follow-up points. Quantitative measures showed increases in daily stress following the program, but qualitative interviews suggested that participants had made positive changes in everyday life. This highlights the one of the challenges of studying the benefits of an intervention: how well do quantitative surveys capture the benefits of yoga and meditation?

January 2006 Summaries

Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial.

Source: Annals of Internal Medicine, 143, 849-56. December 2005.

Authors: Sherman, K.J., Cherkin, D.C., Erro, J., Miglioretti, D.L., & Deyo, R.A.

This randomized controlled trial compared the benefits of yoga, conventional therapeutic exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain.

Participants: 101 adults (66% women, mean age of 44) with chronic low back pain, the majority of whom had experienced pain for longer than one year, and had experienced pain for more than 45 of the past 90 days prior to entering the study.

Interventions: Participants were randomly assigned to either a 12-week yoga intervention, a 12-week exercise intervention, or a home study/educational book intervention. IAYT Advisors Gary Kraftsow and Robin Rothenberg designed the 75-minute group classes and home practice guides for participants. The classes followed a gentle viniyoga approach specifically designed for back pain. Each class had a specific focus (such as relaxation, strengthening the hip muscles, or customizing a personal practice), and included a question-and-answer period, an opening and closing breathing exercise, 5 to 12 postures, and a guided deep relaxation. Postures were repeated rather than held, and included: cobra, bridge, knees to chest, reclining leg stretches and hip openers, modifications of warrior and chair, standing forward bend, and kneeling forward bend (child's pose). The therapeutic exercise intervention was designed by a physical therapist, and included education about biomechanics and both aerobic and strength-building exercise. The self-care book was The Back Pain Helpbook by J. Moore et al., an evidence-based book that teaches a comprehensive fitness and strength program, lifestyle changes, and guidelines for managing pain.

Results: Participants in the yoga group showed the greatest improvements in back function at 12 weeks (the end of the intervention). At 26 weeks, the yoga group also showed greater improvements in symptoms/less use of pain medication than the other two groups. At 26 weeks, the yoga group and therapeutic exercise group showed similar improvements in back function, and both groups showed greater improvements than the education book group.

An educational handout summarizing this study was written for the public and is available at: http://www.annals.org/cgi/summary_pdf/143/12/849.pdf

Note: An interview with author Karen Sherman and yoga teacher Robin Rothenberg, discussing the yoga program used in this study and the challenges of running the study, was published in the 2005 International Journal of Yoga Therapy.

A pilot study of yoga for breast cancer survivors: physical and psychological benefits.

Source: Psycho-Oncology. E-published ahead of print on December 23 2005.

Authors: Culos-Reed, S.N., Carlson L.E., Daroux L.M., & Hately-Aldous, S.

This pilot study examined the physical and psychological benefits of a 7-week yoga program for cancer survivors. Study volunteers were randomly assigned to either the yoga intervention (n=20) or to a wait-list control group with no intervention (n=18). Participants completed pre- and post-intervention assessments, including both self-report of psychosocial and physical well-being, and physiological measurements (i.e. of weight, blood pressure, and grip strength).

Participants: Participants had a mean age of 50, and were on average more than 4 1/2 years past initial cancer diagnosis. 95% of participants were female, and 85% were survivors of breast cancer.

Intervention: The yoga classes began with 10 minutes of gentle breathing, laying supine, with legs flexed at the hip and supported by a wall, followed by 50 minutes of 6–10 modified gentle asanas (which varied over the course of 7 weeks as participants’ flexibility and strength improved) and 15 minutes in savasana (relaxation). The classes are described as Iyengar-influenced, with special attention to kinesiology and an emphasis on "moving mindfully and in [a] pain-free range of motion". Yoga group participants were divided into two waves, so that only 10 participants were in each class.

Results: Following the intervention, significant improvements were seen in both psychosocial well-being (i.e., mood, quality of life, and stress) and in physical fitness (i.e., healthy weight gain and flexibility). However, significant differences between the yoga group and control group were seen only in psychosocial well-being. Participants in the yoga group showed greater improvements in psychosocial well-being, compared to members of the control group. Both groups showed similar improvements in physical fitness. The authors point out that many participants in the control group reported beginning their own physical fitness activities when they were not assigned to the yoga intervention. Therefore, it is difficult to interpret the lack of difference in improved fitness between yoga and control groups.

These authors conclude that the findings of this pilot study "suggest that yoga has significant potential and should be further explored as a beneficial physical activity option for cancer survivors."

Integrative review of research related to meditation, spirituality, and the elderly.

Source: Geriatric Nursing, 26, 372-7. November-December 2005.

Author: Lindberg, D.A.

This article reviews the last 25 years of research on the benefits of meditation for the elderly. The authors defined meditation broadly, to include formal mindfulness meditation, other mindfulness practices, guided imagery, and meditative prayer. The review summarizes a wide range of benefits supported by studies, including: reduced anxiety, increased self-esteem, increased restfulness and alertness, decreased impatience, decreased agitated behavior, increased group participation, improved self-control, and increased relaxation. These benefits were seen in participants with a wide range of problems associated with aging, including physical disease and cognitive problems such as memory loss and dementia. According to the authors, "This review supports the hypothesis that meditation can be taught to the elderly, even those with dementia. The results also support the hypothesis that meditation and spiritual practices could promote significant social and emotional benefits for those in social isolation." The authors also point out the general importance of a spiritual framework for aging, to support and honor the elderly.